Surgical Site Infections

Surgical Site Infections Elizabeth Griffor HCA 375 Continuous Quality Monitoring & Accreditation Instructor: Annajane Schnapp October 27, 2012 I chose to do my paper on the hospital-acquired condition of surgical site infections. In this paper I will discuss what a surgical site infection is, why it is considered preventable, the legal implications related to the patient, the role disclosure plays, accreditation expectations, and analyze the cost of continuous quality monitoring as it relates to quality.Surgical site infections account for 40 % of all hospital-acquired infections ( HAIs) and are unnecessary and largely preventable. Use of antibiotics is fundamental in preventing surgical site infection and includes three core elements: 1. appropriate selection, 2. timing of the first dose, 3. and discontinuation postoperatively. It used to be the standard practice to â€Å"shave and prep† a patient prior to surgery, but a study done in 1992 revealed that surgical site infectio ns were 50% lower in surgery patients whose hair was removed with clippers rather than a razor.One of the most common complaints from surgery patients is being cold in the holding area, operating room, and the post anesthesia care unit ( PACU) . This is uncomfortable and can increase risk of complications; such as surgical site infections. Glucose control is also important as a method for decreasing surgical site infections ( Frances, 2005). Guidelines for preventing surgical site infection are at the preoperative stage, intraoperative stage, and postoperative stage. They are as follows: 1. Preoperative stage: Patient preparation- Identify and treat all infections before surgery; postpone surgery if possible until infection is resolved. * Do not remove hair by the incision site unless it interferes with the operation; use electric clippers immediately before surgery if hair must be removed. * Have patients bathe or shower with an antiseptic the day of the surgery or the night before . * Thoroughly wash and clean at and around the incision site to remove gross contamination. * Keep hospital stays as short as possible to limit the patient’s exposure to nosocomial infections.Antimicrobial prophylaxis- * Work with the physician, pharmacist, and administer a prophylactic antibiotic only if it is indicated; antibiotic chosen should be effective against common pathogens that cause surgical site infections. * I. V. administration of the antibiotic should be timed so it is concentrated when the incision is made. * Do not use Vancomycin for antimicrobial prophylaxis routinely. Surgical team preparation- * Keep fingernails short, no artificial nails; bacteria and fungi can colonize on your hands if you wear artificial nails. Surgical team members who have signs or symptoms of an infectious illness need to promptly report this to their manager and occupational health service personnel. * Surgical team members that have draining skin lesions should be relieved from d uty until infection has been ruled out, they have had therapy, or the infection is gone. * It is also suggested that no hand or arm jewelry be worn, as well as nail polish. 2. Intraoperative stage: Ventilation- * Maintain ventilation in the operating room and maintain a minimum of 15 air changes per hour. Keep the operating door closed as much as possible. * Limit the number of staff entering the operating room. Surfaces and equipment- * Clean surfaces or equipment with hospital disinfectant if they are soiled with blood or body fluids before the next operation. * Do not perform special cleaning or closing of operating room after contaminated or dirty operations. * Sterilize all surgical equipment according to guidelines. * Assemble sterile equipment and solutions just before using them. Surgical attire- * Before entering the operating room, a surgical mask and hood that covers he hair on the face or head must be worn. * Sterile surgical gloves must be worn, putting them on after a sterile gown. * Shoe covers are not necessary for preventing surgical site infections. Vascular access- * Adhere to the rules of asepsis when placing intravascular devices and administering I. V. drugs. 3. Postoperative stage: Incision care- * Use a sterile dressing for 24-48 hours on an incision after surgery. * Wash your hands before and after any contact with the surgical site, even when changing the dressing. Use a sterile technique when changing dressings. * Teach the patient and family about incision care, signs or symptoms of surgical site infection, and when to report any symptoms (Adams, 2001). Following these guidelines can effectively reduce or prevent surgical site infections. Although nothing is 100% full proof, surgical site infections can be reduced and prevented in most situations. If an infection is not present at the time of admission and becomes evident after 48 hours of hospitalization; it is considered to be hospital acquired.Following the above mentioned guidel ines indicates quality health care practices. By using these techniques, surgical site infections will be prevented and reduced resulting in quality care; benefiting both the patient and the hospital. A legal implication related to a patient developing a surgical site infection, results in more cost to the hospital, less profit, and leaves them open to possible lawsuits. Hospital acquired infections affect 1. 7 million hospitalizations, cost $ 8. 1 billion to treat, and lead to 2. 3 million total days of hospitalization.Infections are the fourth most expense in hospitals, costing $ 252,600 per hospital on average, and each afflicted patient requires $ 24,500 more in care on average as a result. Examples of lawsuits filed due to hospital infections are as follows: July 2008, couple awarded $ 2. 58 million after the patient contracted a deadly type of staph infection ( MRSA), resulting in the loss of a kidney, and an amputated leg and foot. November 2008, jury awarded $ 13. 5 million to a woman’s family after she died of an infection aused by flesh-eating bacteria; contracted during cancer treatment. And November 2008, a woman reached a confidential settlement of $ 16 million when a hospital failed to detect a flesh-eating bacteria, before and after she gave birth, resulting in the loss of three limbs and several organs ( Gaffey, 2010). According to the AMA’s code of ethics, it is a requirement that a physician should at all times deal honestly and openly with patients concerning medical errors. Several doctors cite the risk of litigation as grounds for caution when discussing medical errors.Practicing defensive medicine such as ordering more tests or consults has become the norm to avoid malpractice suits. 94% of physicians say they would inform a patient if a mistake was made that caused an injury. Concern regarding legal liability which might result from telling the truth should not affect a physician’s honesty with a patient according to the AMA’s Code of Medical Ethics, however some skeptics maintain that it is easier to brag about virtue, than actually follow it ( Rice,2002).For the most part physicians agree that honesty is the best policy. Many doctors in a survey confessed to errors such as; prescribing the wrong medications, wrong dosage, misinterpreting x-rays, misinterpreting lab reports, etc†¦ One physician stated that being upfront about his mistakes, talking to the family, and apologizing probably avoided a lawsuit. Most doctors agree that it is better to be upfront about a mistake for several reasons, they are: 1. That it always comes out eventually, 2. Dishonesty causes more damage and loses the public’s trust, 3.Honesty decreases the chance of being sued, as well as it is the right thing to do, and 4. They want their patients or family to hear it from them first ( Rice, 2002). Communicating with the patient or family, educating them on the procedure and signs or symptoms to look for can prevent surgical site infections. Being open and honest with the patient and their family when an error occurs can possibly help to avoid a lawsuit. Honesty is always the best policy when providing quality health care.In October 2008, CMS announced that it would no longer pay for hospital-acquired conditions. It is their view that if a hospital has a good standard of practice and multidisciplinary care guidelines that these events should not happen and can easily be prevented. This is not to penalize health care, but to improve the safety of patient care and improve the quality of care by establishing standards of care and protocols. The Joint Commission has also implemented similar reporting and nonpayment initiatives to improve safety and improve the quality of care ( Lisa, 2009).The Joint Commissions new national patient safety goal to prevent surgical site infections includes a requirement to look for surgical site infections for up to 30 days after a procedure. The Center for Disease Control ( CDC) estimates that between 12% and 84% of surgical site infections are found after patients are discharged from the hospital. Joint Commission surveyors will be looking to see if the following protocols are being followed: * Hospital educates health care workers involved in surgical procedures about healthcare –associated infections, surgical site infections, and the importance of prevention. Before all surgical procedures, the hospital educates patients/family about surgical site infection prevention. * Hospital implements policies and practices aimed at reducing surgical site infections. * Hospital conducts periodic risk assessments for surgical site infections. * Measurement strategies follow evidence-based guidelines and surgical site infections are measured for the first 30 days after surgery. * Hospital supplies surgical site infection rate data and prevention outcome to leaders, practitioners, nursing staff, and other clinicians. Antimicrobial ag ents for prophylaxis used for a particular procedure or disease are administered according to standards and guidelines. * Administer I. V. antimicrobial prophylaxis within one hour before incision. * Discontinue the prophylactic antimicrobial agent within 24 hours after surgery. * When hair removal is necessary, use clippers or depilatories ( Hospital Infection Control, 2008). Localized improvement occurs when a team is developed to look at a specific problem; such as the rate of surgical site infections. Organizational learning occurs when this process is ocumented and results in the development of policies that are implemented; such as a protocol for preventing surgical site infections. Process reengineering occurs when a major investment blends internal and external resources to make changes; such as being accredited by the Joint Commission and following their guidelines for prevention of surgical site infections. Evidence-based medicine involves the selection of the best clinica l practices; implementing surgical site infection control guidelines or protocol to reduce cost and increase profit (Sollecito & Johnson, 2013).The most effective strategies for improving health care quality are: clinician-directed audit and feedback, clinical decision support systems, specialty outreach programmes, continuing professional education based on interactive small-group case discussions, and patient-mediated clinician reminders. Pay-for-performance strategies directed to clinician groups and organizational process redesign are modestly effective ( Scott, 2009). In my opinion using the organizational learning strategy would generate the best outcome and cost the least to implement.Having a team put together to gather data on surgical site infections and implementing a protocol or guidelines to follow to prevent these events would result in less cost and increased profit. In conclusion, surgical site infections are for the most part preventable. Following protocols or guid elines can greatly reduce surgical site infections. Educating staff, patients, and their families, can have a big impact on preventing surgical site infections and implementing these strategies reduces cost and increases profit. References: Adams, A. 2001). Preventing surgical site infection ( SSI): Guidelines at a glance. Nursing Management, 32 (8), 46-46. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/231438710? accountid= 32521. Frances, A. G. ( 2005). Best-practice protocol is: Preventing surgical site infection. Nursing Management, 36 (11), 20-26. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/ 231393974? accountid=32521. Gaffey, A. D. RN, MSN, CPHRM, FASHRM. ( 2010). Legal Implications of Healthcare- Acquired Infections. Retrieved from http://www. ahe. rg/ahe/conference/2010/content /092910/a. Lisa, M. S. ( 2009). Compliance with CMS â€Å" never events† billing requirements. Journal of Health Care Compliance, 11 (5), 33-36. Retrieved from http://search. proqu est. com/ docview/227916352? accountid=32521. Rice, B. (2002). Medical errors: Is honesty ever optional? Medical Economics, 79 ( 19), 63-72. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/227734141? accountid=32521. Scott, I. (2009). What are the most effective strategies for improving quality and safety of healthcare?Internal Medicine Journal, 39 (6), 389-400. Doi:http://dx. doi. org/ 10. 1111/j. 1445-5994. 2008. 01798. x. Sollecito, W. A. & Johnson, J. K. (2013). Continuous quality improvement in health Care (4th ed). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN: 9780763781545. The joint commission update for infection control: SSI goal: Look for infections a month after procedure. (2008). Hospital Infection Control, Retrieved from http://search. Proquest. com/docview/758852362? accountid=32521.

Personal and Professional Development Essay

I. Introduction Self-managed learning is an individual person or to find different ways of learning, which may be in the society they live or work in an environment that is diverse. Self-managed learning is also about setting goals for learning by assessing the learning goals and how to achieve that goal. People learn new things such different cultures of people, behavior, personality, cognitive, etc. Individuals can learn things not only in the classroom but also through friends, newspapers etc. Self-managed learning opportunity for people to come up with their own strategies for learning, although sometimes it takes a short time to learn something that might be possible for them to have can pass the exam, or completing a project, it is important for people to acquire knowledge as long as the current environment facing the challenges posed by technological development who need knowledge they can use them in your personal life and your career. Lifelong learning is all about continuous learning individuals can contribute to the professional context. Individuals may have personal assessment as a means of lifelong learning by assessing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to their (SWOT analysis). (James, 2014) Both 2 Long life and self- managed learning are important to each individual. Self-study, access is really the foundation for acquiring knowledge. Choose a suitable learning can maximize capacity and gather knowledge faster. Access to and understanding of knowledge is a huge advantage for personal growth, personal excellence productivity will lead to broad career. Appropriate plans put in place by making a plan of action, monitoring it, set the date, review it regularly will help students achieve their goals. Although, they need help from colleagues by accepting the opinions and judgments that will help them to learn, individuals need to understand the stages of the career development plan for the purpose of having a clear goal of what they want to achieve from learning self-management. It is a self- managed development can enhance long life. Today, when the world is integration, how to understand and choose a best way to learning to maximize the learning capacity is very important in the competition to get better positions to benefit themselves and their organizations, even is a national interest. Here I’ll write down clearly about my learning abilities, strengths and weaknesses of my learning ability to apply to your organization. II. Task 1: Evaluate approaches to self-managed learning: 1. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle Figure 1. Kolb’ ELC Model Having developed the model over many years prior, David Kolb published his model about learning styles model in 1984. This led to the related terms such as experiential learning theory of Kolb (ELT), and learning styles of Kolb inventory (LSI). In his publications – especially his 1984 book â€Å"learning experience: Experience as the source of Learning and Development ‘Kolb acknowledges the early learning experiences of others in the 1900s, including Rogers, Jung, and Piaget. In turn, the learning style model Kolb and experiential learning theory is now recognized by scholars, teachers, managers and trainers works as really profound concepts fundamental to our understanding and explaining the behavior of human learning, and towards helping others to learn. (businessballs, 2014) Kolb’s learning theory laid out four different learning styles (or preferences), which is based on a learning cycle of four stages. Kolb includes this â€Å"cycle of learning† as a central theoretical principles of their learning experience, usually calculated according to the four-stage cycle of learning, which â€Å"experienced immediate or concrete† offer a basis for â€Å"observations and reflections†. These’ observations and reflections are assimilation and distilled into â€Å"abstract concepts† producing new implications for action which can be â€Å"actively testing† times in turn creating new experiences. Here we are going to learn specifically about Kolb’s ELC model: Concrete Experience: Concrete experience is the first stage in 4 stages of Kolb’s ELC. It’s about when we done any activities, after that we have experiences. Experience will create based on done-activities. In this stage, individual or organization will be implemented or do activities. Base on activities and implementation, the experiences will be created. For example, Organizations open many actual work experiences or work rotation will help their employees be more realistic experiences. Also, for those who are in this stage, they are not primarily interested in theory; instead they want to treat each case as unique and learn best from specific examples. Reflexive Observation: â€Å"When the learner consciously reflects back on that  experience† (Many, 2014, p. 15). That means when the experience from stage 1 came, we have to review again, summarize all the task of activity and make sure it’s true. The ‘reflective observation’ factors deri ved from the analysis and judgment of events and discussions about learning and teaching that you take with your mentors and colleagues. People naturally think about their experiences in teaching, especially when they are new to it and less confident in their abilities or when an already painful experience. All of us went out to tell his lesson â€Å"went well or severe, in a visual sense. This could be called† common sense reflection ‘. But how do we know it is good or bad and what is good or bad about it? We need to speak our thoughts in a systematic way for us to remember what we think and build on the experience for the next time. This example may be through the self-reflection or evaluation of your next event by keeping a log or journal. It can also include feedback from students, peer observation of teaching (e.g., advice or opinions of your peers), moderation of assessment, examiners commented on the outside. All of these can be aggregated to give an overall reflection of your practice. Reflected in itself, though, is not enough to promote the learning and career development. Twenty years of experience may include twenty years of teaching the same content in the same way! Unless we act according to our reflections about themselves and about the opinions of others, there is no development took place. Abstract Conceptualization: â€Å"Is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed† (Many, 2014, p. 15). In this stage, the definition start to forming, the place that all the concepts have to be specification. To plan what we would do different next time, we need to do? – In addition to our reflection on our experience – to be informed of educational theory for example, through the reading of relevant literature on teaching and learning or by attending staff development members or other activities. Therefore reflect a middle ground, aggregate and analyze the theory of action in the past. It allows us to conclude about our practice. Active Experimentation: â€Å"Is the learner trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience† (Many, 2014, p. 16). When all the concepts, definitions are formed and specific, the learning activity will be active. The conclusions we form from the stage ‘summary overview our’ then form the basis by which we can change the plan – ‘Operation experiments. ‘Experiment  Activity’ then starts the cycle again when we make changes in the actual teaching us to create a specific experience is then followed by reflection and sees review to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the changes†¦ After activities are active, we have experience again and go back to the stage 1 of Kolb’s ELC, continue and expand the cycle. That’s how Kolb’s ELC work. For example, A singer vocal training, when done the first song, he looked back and do not feel good because it is not appreciated when the song be uploaded online in the internet. Singer began thinking about the theory learned vocal and start over, with the stylized rhythms. Finally, the singer then develops a plan and has successfully recorded a next song. In addition, Kolb believes that we can not do both variations on a single axis at a time (such as thinking and feeling). Learning styles of our products is a choice of two decisions. It is often easier to see the construction of Kolb learning styles in a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two favorite styles. The chart also highlights Kolb term for the four learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, containing: Doing ( Active Experimentation) Watching (Reflexive Observation) Feeling (Concrete Experience) Accommodating Diverging Thinking (Abstract Conceptualization) Converging Assimilating Accommodating: The Accommodating learning style is ‘hands-on’, and relies on intuition rather than logic that mean: people who use other person’s analysis and want to participate in an approach of practical experience. They are attracted to the challenges and new experiences, and plan implementation. They often act on instinct rather than rational analysis.  People with a learning style will tend to rely on others to contain more information than carry out their analysis. This learning style is common in the general population. Diverging: These people can look at things from different perspectives. They are very sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best viewed in the specific situation of different perspectives. Kolb called this style â€Å"divergence† because people perform better in situations requiring idea generation, for example, brainstorming. Those with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to collect information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. Those with divergent styles like teamwork, listening with an open mind and get a personal response. Converging: Those with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical problems. They prefer technical tasks, and less concerned with others and personal aspects. Those with a converging learning style are best to use the actual search for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems. Those with a converging learning style attracted many technical tasks and problems rather than social issues or individuals. A converging learning style allows the expertise and technology. Those with a style convergence want to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications. Assimilating: The assimilating learning preferences is a reasonable approach brief. The idea and concept is more important than people. These people require good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. Predominates in-depth understanding of information and organize it in a clear logical format. People with learning style assimilation is less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to the more theoretically sound approaches based on practical value. This learning style is important for efficient information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer to read, lectures, exploring analytical models, and have time to think things through. 2. 7 Approaches to Learning There’re 7 ways to approach knowledge below: Learning through Research: Is a person who is able to use internet to read any things available that relevant with their demand. In addition, learning through research also is a person that likely to read books or documents to approach to knowledge. The advantages of this kind of learning is not waste time to learn how because everything already available on the internet and books. Their disadvantages are some time they will get too much information and waste time to classify. Learning from others: Coaches and mentors both work one-on-one. Person who’s tend to learn from precursor’s experience but in better way. With this style of learning, they will get the low rate of risk and comfortable to work. Besides, the disadvantages of learning from other are: They are always depending on mentor’s ideas, their creativity is not been developed. Some mentors come from the other environmental with different lever of knowledge and people who are learning from other won†™t understand, and apply the wrong way. Secondments: Is a person who approaches knowledge from traveling, changes in the work environment, work rotation†¦ Because of the continuity change of environment, their advantages are received more experiences, knowledge and adaptment. However, the disadvantages are lack of team work because they couldn’t belong with a group or a team or maybe they get sick because not suitable with the environment. Interview: It’s conducted in order to achieve a specific purpose for at least one of the practices involved, such as information gathering, problem solving or behavior change. Interview provides a vision about ourselves to know who we are. What our position? Interview helps them to know clearly about them self, know clearly about self-awareness. Obliviously, Not only advantages but also the disadvantages, the disadvantages is the information from interview can be inaccurate. Seminars and Conferences: Is the form that learning with teacher or professor. It usually held for groups of 10-50 individuals (a kind of meeting). Seminars and conferences help them to improve their working in group skill, communication skill, presentation skill because many home work for their team. The disadvantages are conflict of knowledge between teacher/professor and students, sometime is waste of time. Internet, Intranet, Extranet: Distance learning, learning through networking. Students can study online courses to obtain more knowledge outside of school. Because of the internet, extranet, intranet so the works/ knowledge are very convenient and cheaper  than learning in class with direct teacher but much if unverified information, out dated, irrelevant information are the disadvantages of this way to approach knowledge. New groups and forum: Is the kind of learning that we open a thread then discuss online a problem or situation with direct post and direct reply of members in group. When people talking, the brain start to storming and many ideas have given out, we can choose one of them. Sometime the ideas getting conflict and bias†¦ There are 7 approaches to learning and knowledge mentioned above, depends on each person, task, resource, and environmental organizations. Each environment, different jobs have different ways of learning to adapt to the situation. In Vietnam with amore harsh environmental conditions more than the other country. The existence of inferior technology and very difficult to identify the sources of open knowledge. In the US and some European countries, students are funded 100% of tuition, even health insurance from birth to 18 year-old. Also, they are equipped with a lot of open source knowledge and especially completely free. They also promote the academic life of students by offering an innovative fund, all creativity and invention will be using public money of government. However in Vietnam, many knowledge donors but not really common, most students are still very difficult to study and develop themselves. Excelled students tend to learn in a better environment to develop them; their dedication to foreigners led to Vietnam has been severely brain drain. Source: (See survey table in appendix). To against the brain drain and improve our own self-study, the following is suggested models that may help students develop Vietnam’s own self-study: With the popularity of social networking, the groups and the forums, you should use them as a learning tool instead of gaming. Figure 3. Self-Constructed study model 2 In Vietnam, mostly self-taught students through the internet so this model will maximize the learning ability and can reach to the most students in Vietnam; Based on hcmuaf.edu site, the percentage of students use the internet in Viet Nam up to 99% (Tran Minh Tri, Do Minh Hoang, 2013). We will share key, close documents (the documents must pay to be read) on a group or forum. On piracy, the State of Vietnam doesn’t have enough ability to find a  hidden group or a hidden topic to share information, discuss and exchange. You make a great ideas, questions, and people will talk, share relevant documents and receive the request. But it will take time to select a member’s idea, but the idea of the document will be firmer. You buy one document but can get back 10 documents related to the work you want to learn, study. Creating a community with the persons that have the same passion for learning and personal development will help you learn effectively in the environment of Vietnam. Source: (See survey table in appendix). III. Task 2: Propose ways in which lifelong learning in personal and professional contexts should be encouraged. 1. Continue Professional Development (CPD) What’s CPD Means? CPD stands for Continuing Professional Development. It refers to the process of tracking and recording the skills, knowledge and experience you can be both formal and informal as you work, beyond any initial training. It is a record of what you experience, learn and apply. This term is often used to mean a physical directory development portfolio of your document as a professional. Some organizations use it to mean a plan for training and development, which I would argue is not exactly true. This article is about the CPD is a process of recording and reflecting on learning and development. (Allen, 2014) What its functions? CPD process is to help you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. Its function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learned. It is not a tick box document recording the training you have completed. It is wider than that. What are the difference between training and developing? These terms are often used interchangeably, although there are differences. As a rule of thumb, the training is formal and linear. It’s to do with learning how to do something specific, related to skills and competence. Training can be as simple as using a computer application and as complex as learning how to become a pilot. Developers often do not have a formal and widely applicable, giving you the tools to perform a variety of things and  is related to the ability and capacity. It is related to the evolution from basic tips to understanding how higher, adult or complex. Also it can be expanded your range of transferable skills such as leadership, project management or organizational information. 2. Honey and Mumford learning style Learning styles include a variety of theories for the differences in modeling natural systems or personal habits of collecting and processing information in the learning situation. A core concept is that individuals differ in the way we learn. The idea of ​​individual learning style originated in the 1970s, and has great influence education. Proponents of the use of learning styles in education recommend that teachers assess learning styles of students and adapt their classroom methods to suit the learning styles of each best student. Although there is ample evidence that individuals express preferences for how they want to receive information, some studies have found value in the use of learning styles in education. Critics say there is no evidence that the identified learning styles of each student. To understand the learning styles, we have four learning styles based on Honey and Mumford theory as follows: (Mobbs, 2013) Activist: Definition: Activist involving themselves fully and without bias in new experiences. They enjoy the here and now, and I’m happy to be dominated by immediate experiences. They are open-minded, not skeptical, and this tends to make them enthusiastic about anything new. Their philosophy is: â€Å"I’ll try anything once†. The activists are learning by doing. Activists need to get their hands dirty, to jump in with both feet first. There is an open-minded approach to learning, involving them fully and without bias in new experiences. Career: Because of their characteristics is preferred adventurous, not afraid of risk and dare to accept the challenge to succeed, they work with the high-risk nature, requires brainstorming and experience, based on the characteristic of openness in big 5 traits model3 , for example as Strategy  Director. Why is Strategy Director? Strategy Director is a job that requires creativity and pioneering. Strategy Director huge impact to the reputation of a company or a corporation. Similar with openness in big 5 traits, openness very excited to be experienced with whatever news; they want to be a pioneer. When creating a new strategy, the risk of failure is big, but if successful, it will bring the not-small benefits when our company/ group is a pioneer company/group, a leader company/group in a particular field. Way to enhance: From above, to manage risks and develop good career, Activist should use the interview-learning to know their exact location and their own ability clearly, from that then personal development and minimize risk.

Prose Appreciation

The East, an excerpt from the short story â€Å"Youth† written by Joseph Conrad is a descriptive paragraph about a young mans first impression of the east. The tone of the excerpt is admiring because the writer uses words such as â€Å"impalpable† and â€Å"enslaving† suggesting that the young deckhand was overwhelmed by the magnificent sight of the east. The aim in descriptive paragraphs is to build descriptive detail. The writer mostly uses long sentences which are suitable for a descriptive paragraph because there can be a lot of detail packed into long sentences. However, there are two short sentences. The fragment sentence â€Å"And this is how I see the east† is used to create suspense while the short sentence near the end of the excerpt â€Å"That I can never forget† emphasis just how great an impression the east made on the narrator. While most of the sentences are assertive sentences, used to experience the scene of the east through the eyes of the narrator as he approaches the bay, most sentences are also loose sentences to accumulate descriptive detail. However, in the excerpt there are some unordinary sentences. The opening sentence â€Å"And this is how I see the east† is a periodic sentence and the delay of the verb â€Å"see† is used to create suspense, on the other hand, to emphasize the immense size of the bay, the writer uses the parallel sentence â€Å"I see a bay, a wide bay†. We see the same affect on â€Å"wide† in the parallel sentence as we saw on â€Å"See† is the periodic sentence. Through out the excerpt, many different types of language devices are used. Sight imagery: used to implant the image of the mountains and the bay the narrator is seeing into the readers mind, Tactile imagery: to give the sensation of holding an oar in hands, Olfactory imagery: to make the reader experience the smells of the wind as the narrator did, Similes: â€Å"I see a bay, a wide bay, smooth as glass and polished like ice† to explain just how perfect a day is was and how calm the sea was, and â€Å"It was impalpable and enslaving, like a charm, like a whispered promise of mysterious delight† used to create the sense of power that the east had over the young man, Personification: the narrator has â€Å"looked into the east’s very soul† used to show the connection between the narrator and the east. The excerpt clearly demonstrates how dumbfounded and impressed the narrator was with the east during his first impression.

Lyon College Taking Advantage of its Social Media Ecosystem Case Study

Lyon College Taking Advantage of its Social Media Ecosystem - Case Study Example The Lyon School uses the social media to appeal to the people because this is where most people access information with a lot of ease. They can easily design the media in such a way that it looks appealing to most of the viewers across the globe thus attracting a positive response. Other forms of advertisement can not easily penetrate the whole world within a short period of time and reach millions of people like the social media, which Lyon College is taking advantage of. The advantage of using such a media is that it’s very easy to monitor the state of the adverts displayed on a daily basis and make changes where necessary. Interaction is possible in matters of minutes leading to quick response to people who may need more information about the College. This makes it possible for the college to establish itself as a brand in the face of stiff competition coming from other colleges. The forum can also be used for product launching without much stress since most people will jus t find the information when they click into the website. This helps to improve the customer dealing leading to maximum customer satisfaction. The alumni of Lyon College are encouraged to be part of the Lyon community at all times of their lives. They are encouraged to be participating in the actives of the college including having fan actives thus encouraging strong bond between them, students and College management. The alumni forum serves an important purpose to all graduates who complete their courses in Lyon College in various ways. The members of the alumni enjoy certain privileges which are not found in other colleges. The alumni parent and are stay connected to Lyon through various activities they do together which brings harmony between them. The gifts and other awards provided by the alumni strengthen the value of their relationship which in turn helps to develop the college as a premium learning institution. The donors are of great help to Lyon College due to a number of activities they support which enable the institution to run its activities successfully. The donations go to Annual Scholarship Fund, Scottish H eritage, President Council Scholarship Fund, Alumni Scholarship Fund, Athletic scholarship Fund among other activities supported by the donor Fund (Lyon College, 2013). Since donors are aware from this social media that their money is well spent on constructive activities, they are never tired form giving support to the school. In this social media, the school takes advantage of their ranking by the Washington Monthly to give hope both to the alumni, students and donors that their efforts are paying off. This is evident since the college is ranked as the best Liberal Arts College in Washington in the year 2013. The college also notifies people through its social media that it has been in the list of top colleges for the past eight years (Lyon College, 2013). This is a ranking from a reputable magazine which not only looks at what the college is doing for the students but also looks at what the college is doing for the community. The institution is also respected from the way they va lue and respect their staff since they give them awards in accordance to hard work. The college is running good programs for its students like adventure activities which add value to their lives.

Analysis Of The Relationship Between Religion Essay

Analysis Of The Relationship Between Religion - Essay Example The consideration of the idea of God inevitably leads to consideration of another, contrary idea, namely the evil. Indeed, if there is light, there must be darkness or at least shadow as well. So, the Christian doctrine is likely to make some provisions about the nature of evil. According to the scholars, there are two forms of evil: moral and natural. The former is something that is caused by people. This form involves the concept of morality and, therefore, can occur only within the environment of the people. So, murder or incest is something that is seen as moral evil by the people. There is a different form of evil, the natural one. It occurs in the environment and people are victims of it, not the creators. For example, earthquakes are put into a natural evil category. Keeping in mind the above-mentioned idea, â€Å"the fact of evil becomes an objection to rational belief in God, at least believe in a perfectly good, all-powerful deity†. However, the Christians were able to come up with various justifications, theodicies. For example, according to one of them, evil is necessary since it makes people morally mature; in other words, the ability to distinguish between good and evil is something that should be seen as a characteristic of a fully developed human and something which Adam and Eve were deprived at first. Therefore, evil exists not because God cannot destroy it (He is omnipotent), not because He does not know about it (He is omniscient) or not because He is not good (He is omnibenevolent).

Sociology questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sociology questions - Essay Example By integration, the structural assimilation from may be on the primary level where minor group members enter the cliques and clubs of friendship in the dominant society or on the secondary level in which group members penetrate organizations or public institutions made by the dominating class. Intermarriage is another form of assimilation which allows members of the minor group to have marital engagement with the members of the dominant group to bring the lower status at a much higher level. In the case of pluralism, acculturation is a form taken by the group as it chooses to maintain its own identity whereas cultural differences are almost negligible in structural pluralism and the groups may be designated at different points within the social structure. Equivalently, pluralism may take integration without accumulation as the third form. (2) The experience of conquest and colonization differed for men and women. Summarize the gender differences in the experiences of African Americans, American Indians, and Mexican Americans. Why did these differences occur? In general, gender differences have stereotyped Afro-American men as hypermasculine and oversexed while Afro-American women are the ones capable of being ‘welfare queens’ and giving a significant number of births. African American men and women alike have shown great support at political struggle toward feminism and egalitarian views of men’s and women’s roles though Afro-American women display much liberalism. Mexican American men, on the contrary, have often been supposed to possess traditional gender functions though it still depends on the generation to which a man belongs and the type of experience with family under force of labor. Despite certain standards traditionally set by parents for their daughters, the latter, as Mexican American women in the making, behave with

Risk and Returns Calculations Impact of Mathematics in Finance Essay

Risk and Returns Calculations Impact of Mathematics in Finance - Essay Example Financial calculations and theories are not complete and effective unless they are linked with Mathematical concepts. Indeed there has been a great impact of mathematics in the financial stream. The mathematical concepts has enable the business doing individuals take more effective decisions related to financing, investments, capital budgeting and so on. Moreover, an investment decision calls for a Ã' areful evaluation of available alternatives, assessing of the reward and risk associated with each of the alternatives that are believed to best serve the investment objectives at hand.For instance, while making the decisions regarding investment and financing, the finance managers seek to achieve the right balance between risk and return.If the firm borrows heavily to finance its operations, then the surpluses generated out of operations would be sufficient to service the debt in the form of interest and principal payments.The surplus or profit available to the owners would be reduced because of the heavy ‘Debt – servicing’. If things do not work out as planned and the firm is unable to meet its obligations, the company is even exposed to the risk of insolvency. Similarly the various investment opportunities have a certain amount of risk associated with the return and also the time when the return would materialize.The Finance manager has to decide whether the opportunity is worth more than its cost, and whether the additional burden of debt can be safely borne

Consumer Behaviour Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Consumer Behaviour Report - Assignment Example Literature Review The main objective of marketing is to understand and satisfy the needs satisfy the needs and demands of the target market customers. The field of consumer behaviour studies the way groups, individuals and even organizations select, buy use, and dispose products or services. The study of consumer behaviour was a relatively new field of study till the mid 1960s (Bagozzi, Gopinath and Nyer, 1999). During that time the study of consumer behaviour did not have any history or body of research (Hines, Hungerford and Tomera, 1987). But then new disciplines were borrowed from various fields and disciplines of management science such as sociology, social psychology and anthropology. Consumer behaviour can be stated as the choice making process as well as physical activity that an individual engages in while acquiring, evaluating or disposing of goods as well as services (Balderjahn, 1988). The study of consumer behaviour and marketing go along parallel. A sound understanding of consumer behaviour is very important to the success of any marketing program. As a matter of fact the study of consumer behaviour is perceived as a corner stone of the overall marketing concept. The study of consumer behaviour has had major impact on the marketing strategies of a company. Study of consumer behaviour helps a company to understand the needs and wants of the customers (Stone and Gronhaug, 1993). Study of consumer behaviour helps marketers to select the target market segment having distinct set of needs and demands. It also helps the marketer to decide upon the marketing mix such as the product, price, place and promotion (Cesi and Olson, 1988). The study and knowledge of consumer behaviour is also quite important for the marketing of non-profit organizations such as hospitals, voluntary agencies. Various non- profit social agencies could be viewed as the sender of ideas looking to target groups of customers. Such organizations also include red-cross blood society (E dell and Burke, 1987). With respect to the present study one of the most important aspects would be the various factors influencing the consumer behaviour. It includes cultural, social, personal, psychological factors (Richins, 1997). The cultural factors include culture which is the most fundamental determinant of the behaviour of a person. Each culture has a set of subculture that consists of relatively smaller subcultures. Social classes are the relatively homogenous divisions of society that are hierarchical in nature. The social factors include reference groups and family (Andreasen, 2002). The reference group of a person include all the groups and individuals that have a direct or in direct influence on the individual. It could include celebrities endorsing product or even the peers and the friends of an individual (Burke and Edell, 1989). The family is also one of the most important parts of the overall consumer behaviour as a person mostly adopts the set of values and attitu des from family only. The personal factors include age, occupation, Economic circumstances, life style and personality of an individual. Psychological factors include motivation, perception, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Learning. Just like the factors influenci

Sourcing Decisions of Arts and Media Organizations Essay

Sourcing Decisions of Arts and Media Organizations - Essay Example Likewise, the process of fund raising and donations has rather become a commercial activity that not only has resulted in more and more charity events but has also created a market within that is funded by such large organizations. The amalgamation of social services and media and arts has been an eminent result. Hence the market for sponsorships has thrived. These can be seen by the famous charity events by BBC and FOX news (Dan 2011). Thus, activities like fundraising, donations and sponsorships are of strategic importance to such organizations which is why sourcing decisions are of integral importance to not only a firm’s financial standing but also to its public relations. It has no become a necessity to get the charity events sponsored or to sponsor a charity event for that matter, as it adds to the reputation and good will of the company. Likewise, firms involved in fundraising are evaluated on the basis of their participation in social activities and on this has become marketing an essential marketing tactics to broaden their customer base and reach of the brand. Fundraising events or sponsorships act as a contact point for several untapped markets and increases brand loyalty of the existing customer base (Pope 2010). Therefore, sourcing decisions are imperative. ... These may include the extended reach of its brand awareness, the objective to increase its brand exposure by having logos placed on the event’s advertisements or simply the motif of profit maximization. These objectives might sometimes conflict with the objective of the firm especially if the event is a charity event (Pope 2010). In that case both the parties will aim for different incentives thus the marketer must provide more substance than just logo pasting. Moreover, the commercial benefit of the sponsor may often be in direct conflict with the firm’s strategic goals. Hence rounds are negotiations are often common when sourcing decisions are made which however incur much costs for the firm (Simmons 2006). Therefore, the most crucial step is the decision to choose from the various candidates. A firm must choose the sponsor who is the best fit with the company’s strategic goals as well as its public image. The Consumer Involvement theory suggests that consumers make purchase decisions based on the level of involvement they have with the brand and includes the aspects of consumer behaviour like amount of time spent on choosing the product or service, research about the specific product or service, asking friends and family etc. therefore, like the advertisements and promotions, sponsorships should be based on such considerations (Krohmer 2011). Given the nature of arts and media products and services, which are high involvement decision making processes involving emotion rather than rational, the sponsorship should be based on consumers’ preferences of the emotional brands that they associate themselves. Hence if an organization is unable to identify the purchase decisions of its

Two Gallants by James Joyce Essay Example for Free

Two Gallants by James Joyce Essay James Joyce’s story â€Å"Two Gallants† presents a colorful presentation of Ireland through the use of words, and their combination with other words to form vivid phrases, throughout the story. It can also be said that the symbolisms in the story, through the aid of the pairing of words and adjectives, are quite easily observable in the sense that, as a whole, the story presents several ironies in the lives of individuals who live their lives close to those of average individuals. The presentation of imagery throughout the story is as compelling as it is also poignant.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Right at the opening lines of the story, it can already be noticed that the author is trying to establish a portrait of the setting. With the line â€Å"the grey warm evening of August† already suggests the feeling of sobriety amid a warm evening to the point of being close to dullness as it sets the mood for the proceeding paragraphs in the story. The color ‘grey’ suggests the fine line between white and black, which all the more makes sense when added with the line ‘warm evening in August’, thus implying the feeling that the characters in the story are just about to commence with what they have in mind just about when the evening sets in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first paragraph of the story obviously establishes the mood of the setting, notable with the author’s use of the lines â€Å"a mild, warm air, a memory of summer, circulated in the streets† which suggests that summer has been over although there is still the feeling of summer around the area, and the author’s comparison of the shining lamps to that of â€Å"illumined pearls† is a metaphor which adds not only color but also a certain ‘feel’ of the setting. The same can also be said about the author’s description of the street which can be observed from the description of the author in which the light from the lamps change â€Å"shape and hue unceasingly† as the streets are â€Å"swarmed with a gaily colored crowd.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The author also provides an interesting initial description of Corley and Lenehan, the two main characters in the story. Lenehan was described as someone who â€Å"wore an amused listening face† while Corley was about to conclude his long monologue. The eyes of Lenehan were â€Å"twinkling with cunning enjoyment† as he listened to Corley’s stretch of narrative. It can be said that the choice of words of the author in partially describing the characters are, at the least, vivid and vibrant. The use of the words â€Å"twinkling† and â€Å"amused† to describe the eyes and the face of the characters respectively tells us more than what can apparently be said about the descriptions. The words transcend beyond mere description as they give a different kind of meaning or characteristic to the face and eyes of Lenehan and Corley respectively. A â€Å"listening face†, for the most part, tell us that Lenehan was very attentive to the narrative of Corley precisely because the former did not only listen with his ears but with his amused face.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another interesting part where the author describes Lenehan is the part where the author compares Lenehan to a â€Å"leech†, as that was the character’s social reputation. That is the part where the author’s choice of a term that will best befit the character of Lenehan tells us the extend of the imagination of the author, reflecting the depth of the skills of James Joyce in selecting words that do not only have deep metaphorical values but also have social relevance. That being said, the imagery of the character of Lenehan is already summarized right after the author described him as a leech because, for all we know, a leech sucks blood or life out of others. In essence, the term â€Å"leech† to describe Lenehan was already a huge and provocative statement in itself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, the author’s presentation of the image of Corley is equally amusing as it is vivid and describes the character in a crafty manner. Joyce describes Corley as the son of a police inspector, who has â€Å"large, globular and oily† head which â€Å"sweated in all weathers†. The words used by the author to ‘illustrate’ the image of Corley is amusing simply because of the words â€Å"globular† and â€Å"oily†, which also suggests that, indeed, Joyce is an author who makes sense out of words which are considered to be out of the ordinary in describing individuals in real life situations. That observation only leads us to the observation that Joyce is indeed focused on writing a story that is very well within the bounds of good literature. To describe a person’s head as â€Å"globular† and â€Å"oily† is also a statement in itself as those two words already give the reader a specific mental image of what Corley looks like. The choice of words illustrates all the more the capacity of the author to turn words into powerful adjectives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Among the lists of the presentation of imagery in the story include but is not limited to the â€Å"large faint moon circled with a double halo,† and the â€Å"pale disc of the moon† which became â€Å"veiled† and appeared to â€Å"meditate†. Seldom can one encounter these descriptions of the moon at nighttime largely because the interest to describe the surroundings is either usually observed in the literary world or in rare occasions of the sudden outburst of one’s imagination in real life cases. Indeed, Joyce once again delivers the literary touch in terms of diction and presentation of imagery, correlating the features of short story with that of the experience of the characters which seem to linger between reality and fantasy. By describing the moon as a large, pale and faint disc surrounded by a double halo while appearing to meditate, the portrayal of the moon comes in ‘full circle’. The moon is depicted not merely as an inanimate object floating in the night sky but as an object which appears to meditate; a description which is characteristic among individuals who seek comfort in silence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Joyce’s method of using words that usually relate to the activities of living humans to an inanimate object is reflective of ‘personification’. By combining the words which can rightfully describe inanimate objects to that of a word which is largely attributed to animate objects gives the reader the feeling that the inanimate object, which in this case is the moon, appears before Lenehan as an object which is both animate and inanimate—a seeming paradox. Nonetheless, this seeming paradox is understandable as it is one which is aimed at presenting an imagery which is not strictly or solely confined within the bounds of real possibilities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is a part in the story where the movement of Corley’s head is described as swinging â€Å"to and fro as if to toss aside an insistent insect† while Corley’s â€Å"brows gathered†. The description of the movement of Corley’s head gives the reader the feeling that, while reading and imagining the action of Corley simultaneously in one’s imagination, the shaking of the head must have been swift and forceful â€Å"as if to toss aside an insistent insect†. It gives the reader the impression that Corley was irritated while his â€Å"brows gathered†, suggesting that he was also showing signs of doubt pressed with a lingering hesitation or reservation somewhere in his mind. Indeed, Joyce’s use of diction in this part clearly highlights the author’s efforts to give life to what can be considered as a character in print. It ‘animates’, so to speak, a character w hich is technically inanimate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More importantly, the various names of streets mentioned in the story all point to the Irish-Catholic Dubliners with the English, sending the reader the impression upon closer examination that the story operates within the background of an Irish and English perspectives. It can also be observed that the story makes certain references to certain colors, such as blue and white in describing what the housekeeper was wearing. The colors blue and white can be attributed to the colors of the dress of the Virgin Mary, which again creates a paradox precisely because the housekeeper who Corley went with is not a virgin in the strictest sense of the word. Thus, the choice of words of the author of the story is not merely based on the fancy of the mind or in random choosing of colors. Rather, and more importantly, the colors chosen were selected to signify socially, or religiously relevant criticisms.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To a certain extent, it can be said that the criticism that Joyce is trying to impress upon the reader with the colors blue and white is the idea that the Irish society during those times, especially the religious church, has failed in maintaining the moral and religious foundations of the people in many ways. Joyce gives the chilling idea that from where the church has failed, the people have picked on those failings to do about their dealings with others. Corley, Lenehan and the woman housekeeper are examples to illustrate that point in the story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is important to note that the â€Å"Two Gallants† gives us a fine look into James Joyce’s ability to flesh out words and use them to bring characters to life, to make inanimate objects turn into animate creatures, and to make social criticisms. The presentation of imagery throughout the story is vivid and vibrant which is met by Joyce through his artistry with diction and in using that diction as a means to create a story with a sensible plot, one that goes beyond the pages and reflects the society during that time. Work Cited Joyce, James. Two Gallants.   Dubliners. Prestwick House, Inc., 2006. 41-50.

Determining Validity of Research Framework

Determining Validity of Research Framework CHAPTER SEVEN FRAMEWORK VALIDATION 7.1  Introduction This chapter focuses on the evaluation and validation of the framework. The research validity and method deployed to maximise the validity will be discussed in the first part of this chapter. Also, the eternal framework validity will then be discussed.   The second part of this chapter will analyse and discuss the results obtained from the evaluation of the framework.  Ã‚   The framework evaluation has been carried out by academics and experts practitioners and has measured the suitability and effectiveness of the framework in the construction sector. 7.2 Validity The validation process started at the first stage of the research,   making sure that the research participants, measuring instruments and context were exclusively accomplishing the research aim.   A number of writers have contended that validity cannot be applied to qualitative research. At the same time, have understood the need for some qualifying check or measure for their research (Golafshani 2003). Clearly there are no direct tests validating qualitative research; however, this does not imply that there are no guidelines (Patton 1990). Through the stages of this research, the effort has been made to guarantee that: (1) the measuring instrument is measuring the concept being referred to and no other concepts; and (2) there is an accurate measurement of the concept (Bailey 1994). The measuring instruments used in the interview method were the interview questions; also the method used in analysing the data collected and building the framework. Therefore, it was important to en sure that all research propositions were clear and effectively measured. Also, the method of analysis required the provision of right inferences. Qualitative research has often been portrayed by flexibility and uncertainty, and tension between creativity and rigour. Therefore at the interview analysis and the stages of framework building,   a critical compromise was carefully considered (Pyett 2003). The analysis of interviews engaged a deductive process whereby the author was his most trenchant critic (Cook and Campbell 1976, p: 229).   This is known as internal validity.   However, in this study, an open viewpoint of validity was used whereby different techniques enhanced the analysis and understanding of the practice of knowledge capture and retrieval and prompted more reliable and valid development of the framework (Golafshani 2003). These methods included: An in-depth revision of the instruments used for data collection and the method of analysis Carrying out a peer review of interviews themes and methods of analysis Carrying out a pilot study; assessing the language of the questions; definitions and terms; clarity of the purpose of questions for interview Construct a descriptive and relational framework for the interview analysis to make sure there is the consistency of analysis criteria and accurate interpretation and inferences. 7.3 External Validity Developing a   framework for the capture and retrieval of WLC knowledge in a construction project is based on a small number of cases, and does not mean this framework can be suitable and effective to other construction organisations practising WLC in the construction sector. However, researchers are also interested in the generalisation of the findings beyond the investigated cases (Schwab 1999). The justification for carrying out an in-depth interview is that people involved in a matured practice have knowledge that would somehow or another not be accessible to the researcher. Therefore, it is the quality of the understanding that is vital, instead of the number of respondents who share it (Wainwright 1997). While researching a few cases may accomplish excellent validity by giving a significant understanding of the practice in those cases; they have been broadly criticised as lacking external validity (De Vaus 2001). The generalising of findings to or across a target population sample is known as external validity (Pedhazur and Schmelkin 1991).   There are no efficient or verifiable methods to carry out external validation based solely on a   single examination of a research relationship (Schwab 1999). However, a definitive way to assess the validity of the proposed framework is to test such principles in reality, yet within research practice, this is rarely conceivable (Pyett 2003). Framework testing by the application method,   it could take quite a while before the reasonable judgment of the framework validity could be reached. Regardless of the possibility that this was to take a short time, there would be a need to access to a huge sample (representing the industry) and the framework implementation in this sector. However, in this particular case, this was viewed difficult.   Nevertheless, a few other methods were able to amplify the framework validity in this study as outlined: Select example case studies organisations (of current and best practices) from the target population in the interview stage. The pilot study provided a solid ground for understanding the current practice of KM; and therefore it was utilised as guiding principles in using the best practice to suit the industry, which boosted the generalising or external framework validity. Looking for the evaluations of the suitability and effectiveness of the framework in the construction sector by experts practitioners and academics. 7.4 Framework evaluation Testing the general framework feasibility by applying it to a large number of organisations representing the construction sector have been difficult in this research.   The framework evaluation by experts was viewed as another alternative for evaluation.   in fact, this method was deemed as appropriate with regards to risk,   finance and value. Assuming that 100 randomly selected organisations are a representative sample and the resources required are accessible in those organisations,   it would take six months for the testing and implementation of the framework (practically it would take years). However what if the framework did not work?   This would mean lost time of 600 months (100 organisation X 6 months) and therefore significant effort.   Therefore, in this case, the evaluation method by experts could be deemed the most appropriate method even though the   generalise by implement method was deemed possible. The reason for the evaluation method accordingly was not to anticipate that the framework was suitable for the organisation of the participated experts;   to obtain the experts evaluation in regards to the frameworks suitability in the industry.   The suitability of the framework was not seen adequate however because the suitable framework did not necessary means it would add value. Therefore, effectiveness was another criterion the evaluation sought to answer. 7.4.1 Participants Justification Based on their experience,   the suitability and the effectiveness of the framework can be judged by experts by using the right tool techniques, required resources and methods. The time and effort required for the framework implementation can also be estimated and matched with the current practice. The participants involved in the framework evaluation is made up of two groups of experts:   academic and practitioners. The practitioners are involved with   WLC practice in the construction project and therefore have a better understanding of the daily work. Also, their participation in a project which requires WLC practice means they can work with other organisation who practice WLC in the construction sector and can understand the verity of work environments. Also, academics are expected to have a deep understanding of different methodological viewpoints, as they know about observation and analysis.   Further,   the academics rely greatly on the construction industry as a major source of information,   so does not imply that they will be isolated. Also, many academics are involved in the practice. Sample A total number of sixteen experts were divided equally between the academics and the practitioner who participated in the framework evaluation. The participants year of experience ranges from eight to thirty-eight years, accounting for the total of three hundred and thirteen years of experience. The eight practitioners were from the three case study organisations who participated in the pilot and main interview of the study. The focus on practitioners was on those in the field with experience in WLC practice because they had an in-depth understanding of the WLC practice. Also,   participating academics were from four universities in the UK, working in the built environment and information and knowledge management departments. Experts Job title Year of experience Practitioners Organisation A Project Manager 35 Quantity Surveyor 20 Building Surveyor 7 Organisation B Quantity Surveyor 6 Project Manager 33 Organisation C Cost   Estimator 15 Project Manager 27 Construction Manager 7 Academics Senior Lecturer 12 Senior Lecturer 30 Lecturer 6 Lecturer 7 Lecturer 25 Lecturer 25 Reader 31 Reader 21 Table 7.1: Characteristics of participating experts in the framework evaluation Because the framework evaluation required a seminar presentation,   this process was thought to be long, and it was expected a low rate of response. Therefore, it was decided to reach the target of participants by sending invites to a member of staff with the three case study organisations.   The total number invitations forwarded was 300 of which 120 were sent to academics; and 180 to the three case study organisations. 7.4.2 Method of Evaluation Emails was used a tool to invite experts and included; An overview of the research project Request to participate in the evaluation of the framework for the purpose of validity Request on the best times which suits each of the case study organisation for a 40mins seminar presentation The framework was presented to each case study organisation using   Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007.   The presentation was interactive in which participants lessened the explanation; while diagram parts were moved in each presentation slides accordingly.   The seminar presentation was arranged into ten slides which took a narrative sequence of logic since it began by clarifying the parts of the framework independently and afterwards presented the strategic framework. Figure 7.1: A screenshot of the PowerPoint presentation The questionnaire was designed and hosted using the online service provider: Survey Monkey and consisted of two parts. Firstly, details about participants including name, organisation, job title, business and size of the organisation. secondly,   the framework evaluation and this was   included in   two sections Score based questions to the rate the suitability and effectiveness of the developed framework Seeking the opinions of the participants about the advantages, limitations and ways of improving the framework. It was decided to present the framework diagrammatically showing the strategic, tactical and operational levels.  Ã‚   The presentation gave a more in-depth description; however diagrams were sent to four research students to assess their readability, and the outcomes affirmed that such diagrams could convey the concept and details of the framework if the reader had extensive experience in construction management. One of the research students who took part in the pilot study was a medical doctor, dissociated from the construction industry, who found the framework unreadable, Although he has a good understanding of the major concept. Respondents were also sent an attachment of the presentations slides via email. 7.5  Results 7.5.1  Suitability of framework Participants were being asked to show their rating for suitability for each of the components of the framework; where 1 implied unsuitable and 5 suitable. The answer from the analysis uncovered that the levels of suitability for all approaches were considered far above the ground. As shown in Table 7.2,   3.74 out of 5 is the lowest mean value for the architecture of the knowledge base. Although it is not indicated in the value that the architecture of knowledge base is a 100% suitable, rather, it shows that it is likely going to be more suitable than unsuitable. The circumstance with regards to knowledge capture, retrieval and structure approach much better as they all have a score of   4 out of 5.   The skewness measure has a negative value which shows   that the mass of distribution concentrates on the side of suitable. Knowledge Capture Knowledge retrieval Knowledge Structure Architecture of Knowledge Base N Valid 16 16 16 16 Missing 0 0 0 0 Mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.9375 4.0625 4.0000 3.7500 Std. Deviation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   .85391 .85391 .89443 1.00000 Skewness   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -.605 -.863 -.639 -.343 Table 7.2: Suitability of the framework components Figure 7.2 shows that the majority of the participants gave a 4 or 5 rating of the suitability of all the framework components. With regards to the architecture of the knowledge base, the suitability was rated under 3 by two participants (i.e. 2). The normal curve illustrates that the approximation of the average of all components almost falls in the 4 rate of suitability. All the indications provide evidence that those components are suitable for the construction organisations. 7.5.2  Effectiveness of framework Participants were being asked to show their rating for effectiveness for each of the components of the framework; where 1 implied to be ineffective and 5 effective. The mean value of effectiveness for all components as shown is (Table 7.3) are above 3.75 and ranges between 3.87 and 4.18. The skewness measure has a negative value which shows that the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the side of effectiveness. Knowledge Capture Knowledge Retrieval Knowledge Structure Architecture of Knowledge Base N Valid 16 16 15 16 Missing 0 0 1 0 Mean 4.0625 4.18750 3.9333 3.8750 Std. Deviation .85391 .910586 .79881 1.02470 Skewness -.863 -1.019 -.842 -.571 Table 7.3: Effectiveness of the framework components As shown on the histograms shown in Figure 7.3 shows that the majority of experts participants evaluated all components to a score 4 or 5 rates of effectiveness. Knowledge retrieval thus turns out slightly more effective than the other framework components. The normal curve makes it clear the approximation of the average rate of all components which almost lies in the 4 rate of effectiveness. All the indicators together provide evidence that those components will be effective when implemented. 7.5.3  The Entire Framework Suitability Experts participants were asked to indicate their rate of suitability for the entire framework using the same criteria as mentioned above. As shown in Table 7.4, the mean value of suitability (3.93) and the negative value of the skewness measure provide an encouraging indication for the external validity. In Figure 7.5,   the pie chart shows that the majority of experts participants (62%) rate the suitability 4 out of 5; and the vast majority (81.3%) are either giving the framework a rate of 5 or 4. Furthermore, the histogram in Figure 7.4 shows that only one expert gave a rating of suitability under 3 (i.e. 2). Therefore, the indications of suitability are positive and show that this framework is considered suitable. The Entire Framework Suitability N Valid 16 Missing 0 Mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.9375 Std. Deviation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   .77190 Skewness   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   -.881 Table 7.4: The entire framework suitability 7.5.4  Effectiveness of the Entire Framework Expert participants were asked to indicate their rate of effectiveness for the entire framework using the same criteria as mentioned above. The mean value (4) and the skewness measure value (negative) which shows that the framework is evaluated to be effective as shown in Table 7.5. A third of the experts participant shows a full mark of effectiveness, and 40% scored the framework a rate of 4 for effectiveness as shown in Figure 7.7. However, as shown in Figure 7.6, three experts rate it a 3 and one a 2. Nonetheless, the normal curve is pointing to an approximation of effectiveness at the rate of 4. Indications show that the framework is effective. Effectiveness of the Entire Framework N Valid 15 Missing 1 Mean 4.0000 Std. Deviation .92582 Skewness -.623 Table 7.5: Effectiveness of the entire framework. 7.5.5  Experts Opinion about the Framework The expert participants were requested to express their opinion about the framework regarding suitability, effectiveness, advantages and limitations. This could give additional assessment not covered in the closed-ended questions. Twelve of the feedbacks were received and had been listed below: It looks good to me. The problem is getting it work in practice. Great model and l like it, particularly the knowledge forms and the categorisation. This will help save time when searching for knowledge I think the overall seminar presentation was good and it covered a lot of the things we do not consider as worth pointing out in our day to day project delivery implementation. It is very hard to make a judgment on these key issues just on the presentation. However, I am quite inspired by the approach to knowledge capture. Although the presentation is great, however, the information, it provides is insufficient. It seems very general. The framework works well in suitability and effectiveness; and in use of collaboration tools, intranet tools with knowledge management within organisations. It is essential for a large organisation that staff can find and utilise answers as well as gaining access to the subject matter, experts and sharing information on similar projects and programmes. The advantages are that knowledge is shared rather than lost or protected by individuals. The saying that knowledge is power is true of individuals; However in organisations that are able and willing to capture knowledge and share this with the wider team rather than isolating it with individual project members. The framework is suitable and effective in many areas and an insightful and logical structure. There is some duplication, but that would seem to be unavoidable. Leadership support is important, with top-bottom commitment. Co-operation/sharing is not always a natural inclination in individuals. The framework seems to be highly advanced and would require an IT   system to enhance its processes and to encourage people to use it. If all members of the organisation are contributing positively to the framework; and most of them have the ability to capture, retrieve, and then re-use the captured knowledge, then the system will be for sure highly effective. In reality, I think we share the knowledge sometimes, but even when we do so, we do not document or capture them properly. As a result, we lose whatever we have shared as we cannot capture, structure and re-use all the knowledge captured by only relying on our brain capabilities. We as practitioners need such a framework to assist us to have a better understanding of the knowledge so we can use it appropriately. From an overall point of view, I admire you for this excellent presentation, and it was informative and well structured. We have learned a lot from this insightful presentation about knowledge management. There is no doubt that this framework is needed for business success. Although the framework appears to be complicated on its operational side; I am certain that if the   KM operation depends on this model, the result will be relevant and highly efficient. The framework makes sense from a project management perspective. However, knowledge capture and retrieval are complex and resource intensive activities and can be onerous to the project team if proper incentives are not aligned with the leaderships expectation of knowledge sharing. I think if your framework is properly applied, it will be extremely effective. Also, it is highly suitable. Regarding its advantages, I think it is simple to read and understand by any person who has a basic level of knowledge management and its management. The issues mentioned in the comments can be grouped into four categories: Firstly, those which highlight the role of knowledge capture and retrieval. Secondly, those who stress the importance and need for such a framework, due to the awareness of the problem, and thus confirm the motives for this research. Thirdly, indications that the framework may require a huge effort and construction projects already involved in demanding work. This issue has been discussed in the statement of the problem (section 1.4) whereby the problem lies on the capture and not the retrieval side. To minimise the problem, the project review was adopted as the main technique for knowledge capture which already exists in projects, rather than introducing a new approach. Additionally, the daily based reviews were rejected in this research for the same reason. Furthermore, a strategy for motivation has been pinpointed in the framework to ensure the application of knowledge capture. Fourthly and most importantly, a suitable and effective framework will also require careful application and effort. This has been said by several experts, and therefore considered a critical point, because the good theory does not necessary guarantee successful application. Finally, an expert described the framework to be very general. As aIn fact the framework is considering a particular area to investigate, related to knowledge capture and retrieval of project management processes, in the context of the project. Models inside the framework have provided precise details regarding what to do in particular scenarios. Also, knowledge capture and retrieval cannot be tackled in isolation from issues such as. Leadership support and cooperative culture. It is worth mentioning that this expert selected the rating of 2 for all of the 10 rating-based questions which are considered statistically biased. However, it was thought that this academic expert provided his personal details and these matched the tracking information. Therefore it was considered a valid response, and his opinion was appreciated. Other points were also considered related to the advantages of the framework; and impressions about the presentation. 7.5.6 Framework Improvement Another question was put forward in regards to how the framework can be improved. The feedback from the expert participants are listed below: By trial and error. The framework can be improved after application l did not analyse the presentation critically to make rational input in this direction I would rather read the whole PhD thesis and make my suggestions What issues should be addressed? Profitability, time and teamwork? There is no such thing as ideal knowledge framework. Therefore the knowledge framework can also be improved. Evolvement of a framework can be made by lessons learnt from previous projects; receiving constructive criticism and using good management techniques such as benefits and stakeholder management. Furthermore being clear about the benefits of knowledge capture and retrieval, with the onward transmittal/access of results by stakeholders, communication and using the framework communication channels for optimum use. The framework is excellent for understanding the needs and requirements of this age, and that knowledge should be shared for the benefit of all within an organisation; rather than being kept and possibly lost by the few, when the project team is dissolved or re-assigned. Show an example of how it will operate in practice. Working hand in hand with the IT system which enhances its process and records all captured knowledge after structuring it. The answers can be categorised into four major groups: Firstly, improvement is a continuous process, and the most appropriate way to improve the framework is through the application. Secondly, improvement can be achieved by addressing time, profitability and teamwork which have already been addressed in this study. Profitability is a significant factor that can declare the importance of knowledge capture and retrieval of the project and is, therefore, one of the areas to be embarked upon. However, the development of a model to measure economic profit alone is enough to do a research project. Thirdly, the exertion of effort in linking the IT system with knowledge capture and retrieval approaches. The knowledge base is a component of the framework, and there is a need to train people on the use of the knowledge base which links knowledge capture and retrieval approaches. Finally, the use of labels to distinguish between compulsory and optional activities and resources. This has been presented differently in this research as the majority of the activities and resources were thought to be important if knowledge was required to be captured and retrieved successfully. It was decided only to emphasise activities or resources that were suggested but not deemed necessary. 7.6  Summary This chapter has set out to determine the validity of the framework. It has demonstrated that validity relies on of the inherent validity of the methods of data collection, analysis, and the inferences led to the construction of the framework. Critical in-depth revision, piloting, peer reviews and a fixed framework for analysis were the methods used in this research to maximise its validity. For the purpose of generalising (external validity) the framework, a number of factors were considered early on in this project. These included using a randomly selected sample in the survey; choosing a sample of best practice from the target population and comparing the results of best practice with the current practice obtained in the survey to assess the ability of and utilise the solution for the target population. Further steps were taken to test the generalisability of the framework by inviting practitioner and academic experts to evaluate its suitability and effectiveness. The results have indicated that the framework and its components are applicable and effective.   Ã‚